Bhautik vigyan

Bhautik vigyan (Physics) ek vigyan hae jisme matter aur space aur samay kaise interact kare hae, ke baare me parrha jaawe hae. Ii energy aur force ke bhi adhyan kare hae. "Physics" sabd Greek bhasa se aais hae, jisme iske matlab "nature" hae.

Bhautik vigyan, engineering aur nawaa technology, jaise aviation, electronics aur hatyaar ke banae me jaruri hae. Mathematics me calculus ke ii kaaran se suruu karaa gais rahaa ki ii machanics, bahutik vigyan ke ek hissa, me kaam me laawa jaae sake. Bhautik vigyan ek sab se puraana parrhe waala subject hae, aur kaaheki isme astronomy bhi hae, saait sab se puraana hae.

Bhautik vigyan ke hissa

Classical mechanics

Classical mechanics me force ke adhyan karaa jaae hae aur solid, liquid aur gas ke behaviour ke bhi adhyan karaa jaae hae. Iske jaada kar ke "Newtonian mechanics" bhi bolaa jaae hae, kaaheki Isaac Newton,, laws of motion ke banais rahaa.^[1]^[2] Iske aur chhotaa hissa me bhi karaa jaae hae, jaise ki statics, dynamics, kinematics.^[3]

Thermodynamics

Isme temperature, pressure aur volume ke effect ke adhyan karaa jaae hae, aur energy kaise heat se transfer hoe hae. Thermodynamics ii kaaran se aage barrha ki log steam engine ke aur achchhaa kare ke kosis karat rahin.

Itihaas

Puraana astronomy

Astronomy, natural sciences me ke ke sab se puraana hae. Sumerians aur puraana Egyptians, taara ke adhyan kare rahin, jisse future ke baare me jaana jaae sake aur dhra ke khaatir. Babylon ke pahila taara ke map 1200 BC puraana hae. Babylonians ii bji paawe rahin ki astronomy ke ghatna repeat hoe hae.^[4] Uulog ke ii samajhnaa scientific nai, ii observation baad ke astronomy ke influence karis rahaa. Dher astronomy Mesopotamia, Babylon, Ancient Egypt, aur Ancient Greece se aais hae. Egypt ke astronomer log imaarat ke banae rahin jon ii dekhais ki aasmaan ke chij gaise ghume hae aur constellations ke jaada naam Greek astronomers se aais hae.

Aristotle aur Greece ke bhautik vigyan

6th, 5th aur 4th centuries BCE me aur Hellenistic jamaana me, Greece me Aristotle, jon Plato ke student rahaa, bhautik vigyan ke baare me likhis rahaa, jisme 2000 saal talak log biswas karat rahin. Uu motion aur gravity ke samjhais rahaa aur chaar classical elemenys ke, jon hawaa, aagi, paani aur dharti rahaa, jiske nature me aapan jagha rahaa.^[5] Ii chaaro ke different density ke kaaran koi ek element apne se aapan jagha pe chal de hae..^[6] Iske matlab hae ki iske wajan ke kaaran, aagi sab se uppar rahii, iske niche hawaa, fir paani aur tab dharti.

Bhautik vigyan medieval Islamic dunia me

Islamik vigyanik, Islamic Golden Age ke time Aristotel ke bhutik vigyan ke adhyan kare rahin. Iske ek khaas yogdaan dekhae waala astronomy rahaa. Kuchh, jaise Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi aurAvicenna, optics aur vision me kaam kare rahin. Book of Optics me Ibn al-Haytham puraana Greek ideas ke reject karis aur nawaa theory propose karis. Uu ii adhyan karis ki roshni kaise aankhi ke bhittar jaawe hae, aur camera obscura ke develop karis rahaa. Europe ke vugyanik baad me chasma, magnifying glasses, telescopes, aur camera ke ii book se banae rahin.

Classical bhutik vigyan

Scientific revolution ke baad bhautik vigyan ek alag adhyan ke field hoe gais rahaa.^[7] Galileo Galilei ke ke experiment ke madat se classical bhautik vigyan suruu bhais rahaa. Jab ki uu telescope ke invent nai karis rahaa, uu telescope se raat ke aasmaan ke adyan karis rahaa. Uu Copernicus ke idea ki dunia, suraj ke parikrama kare hae, ke support karis rahaa. Uu gravity ke baare me bbhi khoj karis rahaa. Isaac Newton, Galileo ke ideas ke kaam me laae ke three laws of motion aur uske law of universal gravitation ke banais rahaa. Ii sab niyam ek saathe dunia ke niche ke gire waala body aur dunia aur duusra ke motion ke samjhais rahaa.^[8]

Kuchh century baad, Industrial Revolution bhais, aur vigyan me aur dher chij paawa gais rahaa. Classical bhutik vigyan ke niyam uu chij jon shire cjale hae aur dher chhota nai hae, ke samjhaawa jaae sake hae. Jab vigyanik qantum meuchanics ke pahila dafe adhyan kare rahin, tab uu log ke nawaa niyam ke banae ke parraa rahaa, jon aadhmik bhautik vigyan ke suruu rahaa.

Aadhmik bhautik vigyan

Jab vigyanik chhota-chhota particles ke adhyan karin tab uu logan paain ki kon chij ke classical mechanics explain nai kare paawat rahaa. Classical mechanics ii predict karis rahaa ki speed of light badle hae, lekin experiments dekhais ki speed of light nai badle hae. Iske Albert Einstein ke theory of special relativity predict karis rahaa. Einstein ii predict karis rahaa ki electromagnetic radiation ke speed empty space me nai badle hae. Uske ii space-time ke view puraana idea ki space aur time ek duusre se separate hae, ke replace karis.

Max Planck, quantum mechanics ke kaam me laae ke ii samjhais ki sab dhaatu (metal) electrons ke release kare hae jab uspe batti chamkaawa jaawe hae, aur kaaheke matter radiation ke emit kare hae. Quantum mechanics chhota-chhota chij, jaise electrons, protons, aur neutrons ke apply kare hae, jisse ek atom banaa rahe hae. Log, jaise Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, aur Paul Dirac quantum mechanics me kaam karte rahin aur aakhri me Standard Model bhais.^[9]^[10]

Jaana-maana bhautik vigyanik

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695)
Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813)
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827)
Joseph Fourier (1768–1830)
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796–1842)
William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865)
Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888)
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
J. Willard Gibbs (1839–1903)
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)
Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853–1928)
Henri Poincaré (1854–1912)
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)
Max Planck (1858–1947)
Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
Milutin Milanković (1879–1958)
Emmy Noether (1882–1935)
Max Born (1882–1970)
Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961)
Louis de Broglie (1892–1987)
Satyendra Nath Bose (1894–1974)
Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958)
Enrico Fermi (1901–1954)
Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976)
Paul Dirac (1902–1984)
Eugene Wigner (1902–1995)
Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967)
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga (1906–1979)
Hideki Yukawa (1907–1981)
John Bardeen (1908–1991)
Lev Landau (1908–1967)
Anatoly Vlasov (1908–1975)
Nikolay Bogolyubov (1909–1992)
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995)
John Archibald Wheeler (1911–2008)
Richard Feynman (1918–1988)
Julian Schwinger (1918–1994)
Feza Gürsey (1921–1992)
Chen Ning Yang (1922– )
Freeman Dyson (1923–2020 )
Gunnar Källén (1926–1968)
Abdus Salam (1926–1996)
Murray Gell-Mann (1929– )
Riazuddin (1930– )
Roger Penrose (1931– )
George Sudarshan (1931– )
Sheldon Glashow (1932– )
Tom W. B. Kibble (1932– )
Steven Weinberg (1933– )
Gerald Guralnik (1936–)
Sidney Coleman (1937–2007)
C. R. Hagen (1937–)
Ratko Janev (1939– )
Leonard Susskind (1940– )
Michael Berry (1941– )
Bertrand Halperin (1941–)
Stephen Hawking (1942–2018 )
Alexander Polyakov (1945–)
Gerardus 't Hooft (1946– )
Jacob Bekenstein (1947–)
Robert Laughlin (1950–)

References

↑ Perot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856552-9.
↑ Clark, John O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-4616-5.
↑ Clausius, Rudolf (1850). "LXXIX". On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat. Dover Reprint. ISBN 978-0-486-59065-3.
↑ Aaboe A. 1991. Mesopotamian mathematics, astronomy, and astrology. The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume III (2nd ed). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22717-9
↑ "Daily 40 no. 2 – Aristotle and the Four Simple Bodies and Elements" (PDF). Cal State LA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2023. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
↑ tbcaldwe (14 October 2012). "Natural Philosophy: Aristotle | Physics 139" (in English). Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
↑ Dijksterhuis E.J. 1986. The mechanization of the world picture: Pythagoras to Newton. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08403-9
↑ Ben-Chaim M. 2004. Experimental philosophy and the birth of empirical science: Boyle, Locke and Newton. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-4091-4
↑ Einstein, Albert and Infeld, Leopold 1938. The evolution of physics: from early concept to relativity and quanta. Cambridge University Press. A non-mathematical account.
↑ Feynman R.P; Leighton R.B. & Sands M. 1963. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 1. ISBN 0-201-02116-1

Duusra websites

Physics For Beginners Archived 2010-12-24 at the Wayback Machine
PhysicistTv.

[Perot-1] Perot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856552-9.

[2] Clark, John O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-4616-5.

[3] Clausius, Rudolf (1850). "LXXIX". On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat. Dover Reprint. ISBN 978-0-486-59065-3.

[4] Aaboe A. 1991. Mesopotamian mathematics, astronomy, and astrology. The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume III (2nd ed). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22717-9

[5] "Daily 40 no. 2 – Aristotle and the Four Simple Bodies and Elements" (PDF). Cal State LA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2023. Retrieved 27 September 2023.

[6] tbcaldwe (14 October 2012). "Natural Philosophy: Aristotle | Physics 139" (in English). Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2022.

[7] Dijksterhuis E.J. 1986. The mechanization of the world picture: Pythagoras to Newton. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08403-9

[8] Ben-Chaim M. 2004. Experimental philosophy and the birth of empirical science: Boyle, Locke and Newton. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-4091-4

[9] Einstein, Albert and Infeld, Leopold 1938. The evolution of physics: from early concept to relativity and quanta. Cambridge University Press. A non-mathematical account.

[10] Feynman R.P; Leighton R.B. & Sands M. 1963. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 1. ISBN 0-201-02116-1

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