Vigyan

Vigyan (Science) uu chij hae jon hamlog kartaa hae prakritik (natural) dunia ke baare me jaane ke khaatir.^[1]^[2] Dher rakam ke vigyan hae. Prakritik vigyan (Natural sciences) prakriti aur bhautik (physical) dunia ke adhyan kare hae. Isme hae rasayan vigyan (chemistry), jiu vigyan (biology), geology, taara vigyan (astronomy), aur bhautik vigyan (physics). Samaajik vigyan (Social sciences) log aur samaj kaise chale hae, ke adhyan kare hae. Isme hae, manovigyan (psychology), samaj vigyan (sociology], aur arthsaatr (economics). Applied vigyan, vigyan se sikha gias chij ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke hal kare hae (solve problems). Isme hae, engineering aur doctori (medicine). Vigyan mathematics, computer science aur logic ke kaam me laawe hae, jiske kabhi-kabhi "formal sciences" bola jaawe hae. Vigyan nigrani rakkhe hae (makes observations) aur parikchhan (experiments) kare hae. Vigyan, thiik sachchaai (accurate facts) , vigyanik niyam, aur theories ke banae hae.^[2]^[3] 'Science' dher gyan jiske ii process me paawa gais hae ke bhi bolaa jaawe hae.^[4]^[5]

Jaanch partaal (Research), vigyanik tarika (scientific method) ke kaam me laawe hae. Vigyanik praikchhan, anumaan (hypotheses) ke kaam me laawe hae, jon pahile ke gyan aur bichaar pe based hae, jiske dher topic me baata jaawe sake hae. Tab ii bichaar ke parikchhan se jaanch karaa jaawe hae. Jon log vigyan ke adhyan aur jaanch kare hae ke vigyanik bola jaawe hae. Vigyanik chij ke adhyan kare hae iske achchhaa se dekh ke, naap ke aur parikchhan kar ke. Vigyanik kosis kare hae ii sanjhaawe ke ki chij kaahe ek rakam chale hae aur predict kare hae ki aage kon chij hoi.

Vigyan ke itihaas hajaaro saal puraana hae. Aadhmik vigyan ke suruwaat puraana Egypt aur Mesopotamia (lagbhag 3000–1200 BCE) me paawa jaawe hae. Uu log maths, taara vigyan, aur doctori ke bichaar ke suruu kare rahin. Uu log ke asar Greeks pe parraa rahaa, jon dunia me kon chij hoe hae ke samjhaawe ke kosis kare rahin natural causes ke kaam me laae ke. Baad me India’s Golden Age me, aur pragati bhais rahaa. Jisme Hindu–Arabic number system ke banaana, bhi hae.^[6]^[7]^[8]

Jab Western Roman Empire khalaas hoe gais Early Middle Ages (400–1000 CE) me, tab Europe me vigyanik prgriti kamti hoe gais. Lekin kuch-kuch jamaana me pragati fir se bhais. Islamik dunia me gyaani log Greece ke science ke adhyan kar ke iske Islamic Golden Age me aur achchhaa kar diin.^[9] baad me, jaise Byzantine Empire kamjor parraa, hian ke gyaani log Greek books ke Western Europe laegain, jisse Renaissance suruu bhaisrahaa.^[10]

10th se 13th century talak, Europe, Greek aur Islamic vigyan ke fir se sikhis.^[10] Isse 16th century me scientific revolution suruu bhais. Science began to change a lot. New discoveries removed old ideas.^[11]^[12] Vigyanik tarika aur important bhais. 19th century talak, vigyan aur professional aur organized bhais rahaa.^[13] Iske “natural philosophy”, bole ke jagha “natural science” bola jaawe lagaa.^[14]

Itihaas

Prehistoric science

Prehistoric science me Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, aur Neolithic ages hae, jon lagbhag 2.5 million saal talak rahaa, 3000 BCE talak. Jab ki ii jamaana ke kosis "vigyan" nai rahaa jaise aaj-kal hamlog jantaa hae, uulog achchhaa se observation, experiments, karat rahin aur ii time organized thinking suruu bhais rahaa. Ek sab se pahila aur khaas, uu time ke vigyan rahaa, patthar ke aujaar ke banaana. Ii Homo habilis se suruu bhais rahaa aur baad ke sanskriti me chalte rahaa, jaise Acheulean, Mousterian, aur Upper Paleolithic log. Log ii time aujaar jaise tangaari, scraper, chhed banae waala aur spear tip banaawat rahin. Iske kare ke khaatir uulog ke ii samjhe ke parrat rahaa ke patthar ke kaise tuura jaawe hae, kon rakam ke paththarr sab se achchhaa rahe hae aur iske kaise thiik force se maara jaawe sake hae. Archaeologists (scientists who study ancient human history) ii sabuut paain hae ki ii puraana insaan trial and error se sikhe rahin, aur ii jaankari ke duusre se share kare rahin. Jaise time pass bhais, ii log aapan aujar ke aur achchhaa kar ke iske aur tagrraa banae rahin. Ii rakam ke hands-on sikhna aur ii jaan kari ke duusre ke dena, vigyan ke kaam me laaae ke problem ke solve kare ke namuuna hae, khaas kar ke materials ke samajhna aur iske kaise kaam me laana, jiske aaj-kal materials science bola jaawe hae.^[15]

Puraana jamaana ke insaan ke lage taara vigyan ke kuchh jaankaari rahaa, aasmaan ke adhyan. Iske archaeological discoveries me dekha jaawe hae, jaise Blanchard bone (lagbhag 30,000 BCE) aur Lascaux Cave paintings (lagbhag 17,000 BCE). Ii chij aur chhaapa dekhae hae ki puraana insaan chandarma ke phases ke dekhat rahin aur taara ke jhund ke recognise karat rahin, jaise Pleiades constellation.^[16]^[17] Ek sab se puraana aasmaan dekhe waala structure Nabta Playa hae, patthar ke circlesouthern Egypt me, jiske lagbhag 6000 BCE me banaawa gais rahaa. Ii ek sab se puraana namuuna hae jisme log barraa-barra patthar ke summer solstice sunrise se line kare hae, saal ke sab se lambaa din. Isse mausam ke barsaat pe bhi nigraani rakkhaa jaawat rahaa , jon huura jagha me rahe ke khaatir jaruri hae.^[18] Ii viyan aur taara vigyan ke taraf ek khaas kadam rahaa. ^[19]

References

↑ Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford companion to the history of modern science. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_s7n3.
1 2 Wilson, Edward O. 1998. Consilience: the unity of knowledge. New York: Vintage Books, 49–71. ISBN 0-679-45077-7
↑ Heilbron J.L. 2003. The Oxford companion to the history of modern science. New York: Oxford University Press, vii. ISBN 0-19-511229-6.
"... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions".
↑ "Online dictionary". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2009-05-22. knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method...
↑ Popper, Karl (2002). The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2nd English ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Classics. p. 3. ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149. https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_859.
↑ Keay, John (2000). India: a history (1st ed.). New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 978-0-87113-800-2. https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay.
↑ Grant, Edward (2007). A history of natural philosophy: from the ancient world to the nineteenth century. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68957-1. https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran.
↑ Lindberg, David C. (2007). The beginnings of western science: the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450 (2nd ed.). Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7. https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5.
↑ Lindberg, David C. (2007). The beginnings of western science: the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450 (2nd ed.). Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7. https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5.
1 2 Grant, Edward (2007). A history of natural philosophy: from the ancient world to the nineteenth century. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68957-1. https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran.
↑ Lindberg, David C. (2007). The beginnings of western science: the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450 (2nd ed.). Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7. https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5.
↑ Principe, Lawrence (2011). The scientific revolution: a very short introduction. Very short introductions (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956741-6.
↑ Cahan, David, ed. (2003). From natural philosophy to the sciences: writing the history of nineteenth-century science. Chicago, Ill. London: Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7.
↑ Harrison, Peter (2015). The territories of science and religion. Chicago London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-18451-7.
↑ Tine, Shalon van (2017). "Prehistory" (in en). Rebus. https://press.rebus.community/historyoftech/front-matter/prehistory/.
↑ "The Ishango and Blanchard Bones - PlanetQuest". www.planetquest.org. Retrieved 2025-07-17.
↑ Cottier, Cody (2023-01-17). "Ancient humans and their early depictions of the universe". Astronomy Magazine (in English). Retrieved 2025-07-17.
↑ Ruggles, C. L. N., ed. (2014). Handbook of archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy. New York: Springer Reference. ISBN 978-1-4614-6140-1.
↑ "Astronomy Lecture Notes - Early History". www.phy.olemiss.edu. Retrieved 2025-07-17.

[1] Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford companion to the history of modern science. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_s7n3.

[wilson-2] 1 2 Wilson, Edward O. 1998. Consilience: the unity of knowledge. New York: Vintage Books, 49–71. ISBN 0-679-45077-7

[3] Heilbron J.L. 2003. The Oxford companion to the history of modern science. New York: Oxford University Press, vii. ISBN 0-19-511229-6.
"... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions".

[4] "Online dictionary". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2009-05-22. knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method...

[Popper-5] Popper, Karl (2002). The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2nd English ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Classics. p. 3. ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149. https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_859.

[6] Keay, John (2000). India: a history (1st ed.). New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 978-0-87113-800-2. https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay.

[7] Grant, Edward (2007). A history of natural philosophy: from the ancient world to the nineteenth century. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68957-1. https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran.

[8] Lindberg, David C. (2007). The beginnings of western science: the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450 (2nd ed.). Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7. https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5.

[9] Lindberg, David C. (2007). The beginnings of western science: the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450 (2nd ed.). Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7. https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5.

[:0-10] 1 2 Grant, Edward (2007). A history of natural philosophy: from the ancient world to the nineteenth century. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68957-1. https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran.

[11] Lindberg, David C. (2007). The beginnings of western science: the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450 (2nd ed.). Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7. https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5.

[12] Principe, Lawrence (2011). The scientific revolution: a very short introduction. Very short introductions (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956741-6.

[13] Cahan, David, ed. (2003). From natural philosophy to the sciences: writing the history of nineteenth-century science. Chicago, Ill. London: Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7.

[14] Harrison, Peter (2015). The territories of science and religion. Chicago London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-18451-7.

[15] Tine, Shalon van (2017). "Prehistory" (in en). Rebus. https://press.rebus.community/historyoftech/front-matter/prehistory/.

[16] "The Ishango and Blanchard Bones - PlanetQuest". www.planetquest.org. Retrieved 2025-07-17.

[17] Cottier, Cody (2023-01-17). "Ancient humans and their early depictions of the universe". Astronomy Magazine (in English). Retrieved 2025-07-17.

[18] Ruggles, C. L. N., ed. (2014). Handbook of archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy. New York: Springer Reference. ISBN 978-1-4614-6140-1.

[19] "Astronomy Lecture Notes - Early History". www.phy.olemiss.edu. Retrieved 2025-07-17.

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