Udaarwaad
Udaarwaad (Liberalism) ek rajnitik (political) aur naetik (moral) philosophy hae, jon ek jan ke aapan adhikaar (rights), ajaadi (liberty), shaasan ke marji dena (consent to be governed), rajnitik samaanataa (political equality), aapan sampati ke adhikaar (the right to private property) aur kaanun ke aage baraabari (equality before law), pe adhaarit (based) hae.[1][2]Liberals me dher rakam ke bichaar rahe hae jon uu log ke ii siddhaant (principles) ke samjhe ke uppar nirbhar rahe hae lekin jaada kar ke support sampati ke adhikaar, bajaar arthvyavasth (market economies), aapan adhikaar (jisme civil rights aur human rights hae), liberal democracy, dharam ke ajaadi, kaanun ke saashan (rule of law), paisa kamae ke ajaadi, koi political party ke chune ke ajaadi , kuchh bole ke ajaadi, chhaape ke ajaadi, ekkhatta hoe ke ajaadi aur koi dharam ke chune ke ajaadi, me biswas kare hae.[3] Liberalism ke aadhmik itihaas ke sab se barraa bichaar samjhaa jaae hae. [4][5]
Udaarwaad ek alag rajnitik andolan (movement) Age of Enlightenment me hoe gais rahaa, aur western dunia ke philosophers aur economists me mashuur hoe gais rahaa. Udaarwaad maangat rahaa ki uu samay samaj ke bichaar, jisme raj kare ke janam adhikaar, des ke dharam, ek raja jiske puura adhikaar rahe hae, ii biswas kare ke parre ki raja ke bagwaan adhikaar diis hae, ke hatae ke ii sab ke pratinidhi loktantr (representative democracy, kaanun ke raj, aur kaanuun ke niche baraabari se replace karaa jaae. Udaarwaad me biswas kare waala log laalchi niti, raja ke puura adhikaar, vypaar se rukaawat hataana aur free tasre aur bajaar economy me biswas kare hae. Philosopher John Locke ke udaarwaad ke suruu kare ke credit dewa jaae hae, jon ii bahas karis rahaa ki har ek adnii ke janam ke adhikaar hae jindagi, ajaadi aur property ke aur sarkar ke ii adhikaar ke violate nai kare ke chaahi.[6] Jab British liberal tradition democracy ke barrhae pe jor diis, French liberalism, ek jab ke duusre ke uppar raj kare ke janam adhikaar ke hatae aur des ke banae pe jor diis rahaa.[7]
1688 ke British Glorious Revolution ke neta log,[8] 1776 ke American Revolution aur 1789 ke French Revolution ke namuuna de ke ii batae hae ki raja log ke armed overthrow me koi kharaabi nai hae. 19th century me liberal sarkar Europe aur South America me banaa rahaa, aur ii republicanism in the United States ke saathe rahaa.[9] Victorian Britain me, iske kaam me laae ke political establishment ke criticize karaa jaawat rahaa, aur ii janata ke bagal se vigyaan ke kaaran diis rahaa. [10] 19th aur early 20th centuries me, liberalism in the Ottoman Empire aur Middle East ke kaaran huan pe badlao bhais , jaise Tanzimat aur Al-Nahda, aur ii sab des me and the rise of constitutionalism, nationalism, aur secularism me pragati bhais. Ii sab badlao, duusra factors, ke kaaran Islam ke bhittar crisis bhais , jon abhi talak chale hae, jiske kaaran Islamic revivalism bbhais rahaa. 1920 se pahile, udaarwaad ke khaas birodi me communism, conservatism, aur socialism rahin.[11] Ii time udaarwaad ke khass pratyogitaa (challenges) fascism aur Marxism–Leninism se rahin. 20th century me, udaarwaad ke bichaar aur faelaa, jaada kar ke in Western Europe me, jab liberal democracies duuno world wars ke jiit gay rahin[12] aur Cold War ke bhi.[13][14]
- ↑ McLean, Iain; McMillan, Alistair, eds. (2010). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920516-5. OCLC 173498589.
liberalism In general, the belief that it is the aim of politics to preserve individual rights and to maximize freedom of choice.
- ↑ Dunn, John (1993). Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43755-4. OCLC 28111574. "political rationalism, hostility to autocracy, cultural distaste for conservatism and for tradition in general, tolerance, and ... individualism."
- ↑ Generally support:
- Hashemi, Nader (2009). Islam, Secularism, and Liberal Democracy: Toward a Democratic Theory for Muslim Societies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-971751-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=UkVIYjezrF0C&q=liberalism+secularism. "Liberal democracy requires a form of secularism to sustain itself"
- Donohue, Kathleen G. (19 December 2003). Freedom from Want: American Liberalism and the Idea of the Consumer. New Studies in American Intellectual and Cultural History. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7426-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=htuTnexZAo8C&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&pg=PA1. Retrieved 31 December 2007. "Three of them – freedom from fear, freedom of speech, and freedom of religion – have long been fundamental to liberalism."
- "The Economist, Volume 341, Issues 7995–7997". “For all three share a belief in the liberal society as defined above: a society that provides constitutional government (rule by law, not by men) and freedom of religion, thought, expression and economic interaction; a society in which ....”
- Wolin, Sheldon S. (2004). Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Western Political Thought. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11977-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=ndAdGl8ScfcC&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&pg=PA525. Retrieved 31 December 2007. "The most frequently cited rights included freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, property, and procedural rights"
- Firmage, Edwin Brown; Weiss, Bernard G.; Welch, John Woodland (1990). Religion and Law: Biblical-Judaic and Islamic Perspectives. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-0-931464-39-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=mQJgnEITPRIC&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&pg=PA366. Retrieved 31 December 2007. "There is no need to expound the foundations and principles of modern liberalism, which emphasises the values of freedom of conscience and freedom of religion"
- Lalor, John Joseph (1883). Cyclopædia of Political Science, Political Economy, and of the Political History of the United States. Nabu Press. p. 760. https://archive.org/details/cyclopaediapoli00lalogoog. Retrieved 31 December 2007. "Democracy attaches itself to a form of government: liberalism, to liberty and guarantees of liberty. The two may agree; they are not contradictory, but they are neither identical, nor necessarily connected. In the moral order, liberalism is the liberty to think, recognised and practiced. This is primordial liberalism, as the liberty to think is itself the first and noblest of liberties. Man would not be free in any degree or in any sphere of action, if he were not a thinking being endowed with consciousness. The freedom of worship, the freedom of education, and the freedom of the press are derived the most directly from the freedom to think."
- "Liberalism". Encyclopedia Britannica (in English). Retrieved 2021-06-16.constitutional government and privacy rights
- Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). The Desk Encyclopedia of World History. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 374. ISBN 978-0-7394-7809-7.
- ↑ Wolfe, p. 23.
- ↑ Adams, Ian (2001). "2: Liberalism and democracy". Political Ideology Today. Politics Today (Second ed.). Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6019-2. https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/page/10/mode/2up?view=theater.
- ↑ Locke, John. Second Treatise of Government. "All mankind ... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions"
- ↑ Kirchner, p. 3.
- ↑ Pincus, Steven (2009). 1688: The First Modern Revolution. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15605-8. https://archive.org/details/1688firstmodernr00stev. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
- ↑ Zafirovski, Milan (2007). Liberal Modernity and Its Adversaries: Freedom, Liberalism and Anti-Liberalism in the 21st Century. Brill. p. 237. ISBN 978-90-04-16052-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=GNlT9Qho0tAC&pg=PA237.
- ↑ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2017). "The Politics of Cognition: Liberalism and the Evolutionary Origins of Victorian Education". British Journal for the History of Science 50 (4): 677–699. doi:10.1017/S0007087417000863. ISSN 0007-0874. PMID 29019300.
- ↑ Koerner, Kirk F. (1985). Liberalism and Its Critics. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-27957-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=Lta_DwAAQBAJ.
- ↑ Conway, Martin (2014). "The Limits of an Anti-liberal Europe". In Gosewinkel, Dieter. Anti-liberal Europe: A Neglected Story of Europeanization. Berghahn Books. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-78238-426-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=ECIfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184. "Liberalism, liberal values and liberal institutions formed an integral part of that process of European consolidation. Fifteen years after the end of the Second World War, the liberal and democratic identity of Western Europe had been reinforced on almost all sides by the definition of the West as a place of freedom. Set against the oppression in the Communist East, by the slow development of a greater understanding of the moral horror of Nazism, and by the engagement of intellectuals and others with the new states (and social and political systems) emerging in the non-European world to the South."
- ↑ Iber, Patrick (13 October 2015). Neither Peace Nor Freedom: The Cultural Cold War in Latin America. Harvard University Press. pp. 6. ISBN 978-0-674-28604-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=SqDXCgAAQBAJ.
- ↑ Fukuyama, Francis (1989). "The End of History?". The National Interest (16): 3–18. ISSN 0884-9382. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184.