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French Revolution

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The storming of the Bastille, on 14 July, 1789

France Ka Itihaas, France ke itihaas me 1789 aur 1799 ke biich ke time rahaa.

French Revolution ek rajnitik aur samajik badlao ke samay France me rahaa, jon Estates General of 1789 se suruu bhais rahaa aur Coup of 18 Brumaire 9 November 1799 me khalaas bhais rahaa. Revolution ke dher ideas ke fundamental principles of liberal democracy maana jaawe hae,[1] aur iske values adhmik French rajnitik discourse ke central hae.[2] Iske kaaran samajik, rajnitik, aur economic factors ke milan rahaa jiske uutime ke sarkar manage nai kare paais rahaa. Aarthik sankat aur barraa paimane pe samajik sankat ke kaaran Estates General ke sansad ke meeting, May 1789, jon 1614 ke baad pahila meeting rahaa. Third Estate ke representatives alag hoe ke apne ke re-constitute karin as National Assembly, June me. Paris me Storming of the Bastille 14 July me ke kaaran Assembly kuchh series of radical measures liis rahaa, jisme abolition of feudalism, state control over the Catholic Church in France, aur issuing the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen rahaa.

Agle tiin saal me bahut jaada political control pe srtuggle rahaa. Raja Louis XVI ke kosis, Varennes bhaage ke, June 1791 me, monarchy ke aur discreditkar diis rahaa, aur larrai me haar, French Revolutionary Wars me April 1792 se, insurrection of 10 August 1792 suruu bhais rahaa. Iske kaaran, monarchy ke French First Republic se September me badla gais rahaa, jiske baad execution of Louis XVI January 1793 me bhais rahaa.

Ek aur revolt in June 1793 ke baad, samidhaan ke suspend kar dewa gais rahaa, aur rajnitik taagat National Convention se Committee of Public Safety ke lage chal diis rahaa, jiske radical Jacobins jiske Maximilien Robespierre lead karat rahaa, dominate karat rahin. Lagbhag 16,000 log ke Revolutionary Tribunal sentence karis rahaa aur uulog ke Reign of Terror me maar dewa gais rahaa, jon July 1794 me khalaas bhaisrahaa, jab Thermidorian Reaction bhais rahaa. Des bahaari threats aur bhitri virodh ke kaaran kamjor hoe gais rahaa, aur Committee of Public Safety ke November 1795 me Directory se replace karaa gais rahaa. Des ke instability 1799 me khalaas bhais rahaa jab coup of 18 Brumaire Consulate ke banais, jisme Napoleon Bonaparte First Consul rahaa.

Kaaran

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Revolution ke kaaran dher long-term aur short-term kaaran rahaa, jiske anjaam samajik, economic, financial aur rajnitik crisis, 1780s ke ant ke rahaa.[3][4][5] Raaj kare waala log ke pariwartan nai accept karna , aur iske saathe Louis XVI ke indecisive policy aur uske ministers ke kaaran, anjaam ek crisis rahaa jiske des manage nai kare sakat rahaa.[6][7]

1715 aur 1789 ke biich me, France ke abaadi 21 million se barr ke 28 million hoe gais rahaa, jisme se 20% towns aur cities me rahat rahin, aur khaali Paris me 600,000 lig rahat rahin.[8] Iske saathe middle class ke size tigna hoe gais rahaa, jon 1789 ke des ke abaadi ke 10% rahaa.[9] Jab des aur dhani hoe gais rahaa, isse faeda kare waale jaada kar ke merchant class ke rahin, jab majuur aur kisaan ke aamdani kamti hoe gais rahaa. [10][11] 1785 ke economic recession, aur iske saathe 1787 aur 1788 me kharaab fasal, ke kaaran dher log ke kaam nai milat rahaa aur khaana ke daam jaada hoe gais rahaa, jiske kaaran arthik aur rajnitik crisis rahaa. [3][12][13][14]

Jab des karjaa ke sankat me rahaa, karjaa Great Britain ke mukable me bahut jaada nai rahaa.[15] Ek khaas samasya ii rahaa ki tax ek ilaaka se duusra me ekke nai rahaa, aur ii sarkari rate se bhi different rahaa, aur iske achchhaaa se batora nai jaawat rahaa. Ii complexity aur accountability ke kami ke kaaran tax bhare waale resentful rahin. [16] Ii system ke sahaj banae ke kosis ke regional Parlements jon arthik policy ke implement karat rahaa, rok de rahin. Ii likjaam ke kaaran Estates General of 1789 balaawa gais rahaa, jon control of public finances ke struggle me radicalise hoe gay rahin.[17]

Louis XVI reforms ke consider kare maangat rahaa, lekin uu pichhe hoe jaawat rahaa jab nobility me ke conservatine log koi chij ke virod karat rahin. Yahii time, American Revolution aur Europe ke revolts 1780s ke kaaran public debate patriotism, liberty, equality, aur democracy pe bhais rahaa. Isse educated public crisis ke assess karat rahin,[18] jab scandals jaise Affair of the Diamond Necklace ke kaaran log raja, nobility, aur church officials se khusi nai rahin.[19]

Ancien Régime me samasya

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The regional Parlements 1789 me; note karo ki ketna area ke Parlement of Paris cover kare hae

Aarthik aur rajnitik samasya

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France, 18th century me budgetary samasya me rahaa, kaaheki aamdani, kharchaa ke rakam nai barrhaa rahaa.[20][21] Economy ke jor se barrhe ke baawajuut, kisaan ke tax kare se, ii state tax income me nai dekhaat rahaa.[20] Kaaheki nobility aur Church dher rakam ke exemptions se faeda karat rahin, tax ke bojhaa jaada kar ke garib log pe parraa rahaa. [22] Ii samasya ke sudhaarna hard rahaa, kaaheki nawaa tax kanuun ke regional judicial bodies nai to parlements se register kare ke parrat rahaa, jon iske roke me safal rahin. Raja decree se kaanuun bane sakat rahaa, lekin isse parlements, dhani log, aur uu jispe nawaa tax lagaawa jaata, se relationship kharaa hoe sakat rahaa, .[23]

Francejaada kar ke udhaar paisa le ke 1778 se 1783 Anglo-French War ke finance karis rahaa. it ended ke baad bhi, monarchy dher paisa udhaar lete rahaa, aur 1788 talak, aadha state ke aamdani karjaa bhare me kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa.[24][25] 1786 me, France ke finance minister, Calonne, reforms ke prasthao rakkhis jisme universal land tax rahaa, grain controls ke radd karna aur bhitri tariffs, aur nawaa provincial assemblies jiske raja appoint karta. Nawaa taxes ke rejected kar dewa gais rahaa, pahila hand-picked Assembly of Notables jiske handpicked nobility dominate karat rahin,se, then by the parlements when submitted by Calonne's successor Brienne. Dhani log aur parlements argued karis ki proposed taxes ke khaali approve karaa jaae sakat rahaae Estates-General se, ek representative body jon pichle baar 1614 me meet karis rahaa.[26]

Raja aur parlements ke biich ke takrao ek national political samasya hoe gais rahaa. Duuno bagal dher public statements de rahin, sarkar bahas karis ki uu privilege ke combat karat rahaa, aur parlement des ke puraana adhikaar ke defend karat rahaa. Public opinion parlements ke side rahaa, aur dher town me danga susuu hoe gais rahaa. Brienne ke aur paisa udhaar le ke kosis asafal rahaa, aur 8 August 1788 ke, uu announce karis ki raja Estates-General ke mile ke batai agle roj. Brienne istifa de diis aur uske Jacques Necker se replace karaa gais rahaa.[27]

September 1788 me, Parlement of Paris rule karis ki Estates-General ke wahii form me mile ke chaahi jaise uu 1614 me milis rahaa, jiske matlab rahaa ki tiin estates mil ke alag-alag vote karii, jisme vote ke estate se gina jaai, log pe nai. Iske kaaran, clergy aur nobility mil ke Third Estate ke outvote kare sakat rahaa, bhale uu 5% abaadi ke khaali represent karat rahaa.[28][29] Censorship aur political clubs ke against kaanuun ke dhilla kare se, ek liberal nobles aur middle class activists ke ek group group jiske the Society of Thirty ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa, ek campaign launch karis ki Third Estate ke double karaa jaawe aur representation aur individual voting rights dewa jaae. Public debate ke kaaran 25 nawaa political pamphlets har haftaa publish karaa gais rahaa, har haftaa 25 September 1788 se.[30]

Isme se sab se jaada influential ke likhe waala Abbé Sieyès rahaa. Iske title What Is the Third Estate? rahaa, aur ii lergy aur nobility ke privilege ke ninda karis rahaa, aur ii bahas karis ki Third Estate des ke represent karat rahaa aur iske akele ek National Assembly ke ruup me baithe ke chaahi. Activists jaise Jean Joseph Mounier, Antoine Barnave aur Maximilien Robespierre regional meetings organise kare rahin, petitions aur literature likhe rahin ii demand ke support me. [31] December me, raja Third Estate ke representation ke dugna kare ke sahmat hoe gais rahaa, lekin vote ke gine ke adhikar ke Estates-General pe chhorr diis rahaa.[32]

Ii Revolution uu time khalaas bhais jab Napoleon Bonaparte November 1799 me dictator banaa.


Duusra websites

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  1. ↑ Livesey 2001, p. 19.
  2. ↑ Fehér 1990, pp. 117–130.
  3. 1 2 Jessene 2013, pp. 39–40.
  4. ↑ Jourdan 2015, p. 100.
  5. ↑ Marzagalli 2015, p. 4.
  6. ↑ Baker 1978, pp. 279–303.
  7. ↑ Jordan 2004, pp. 11–12.
  8. ↑ Marzagalli 2015, pp. 6–7.
  9. ↑ Clay 2015, pp. 24, 31.
  10. ↑ Jessene 2013, pp. 32–33.
  11. ↑ Marzagalli 2015, pp. 8–10.
  12. ↑ Jourdan 2015, p. 104.
  13. ↑ Marzagalli 2015, pp. 5, 14–17.
  14. ↑ Tilly 1983, p. 337.
  15. ↑ Weir 1989, p. 98.
  16. ↑ Chanel 2015, p. 68.
  17. ↑ Weir 1989, p. 96.
  18. ↑ Jourdan 2015, pp. 94–104.
  19. ↑ Smith 2015, pp. 50–51.
  20. 1 2 Jessene 2013, p. 36.
  21. ↑ Sargent & Velde 1995, pp. 485, 490–491.
  22. ↑ Sargent & Velde 1995, pp. 483–485.
  23. ↑ Sargent & Velde 1995, pp. 482–483.
  24. ↑ Jessene 2013, p. 38.
  25. ↑ Sargent & Velde 1995.
  26. ↑ Doyle 1990, pp. 69–76.
  27. ↑ Doyle 1990, pp. 75–85.
  28. ↑ Schama 1989, p. 115.
  29. ↑ Doyle 1990, p. 88.
  30. ↑ Cobban 1963, p. 135.
  31. ↑ Doyle 1990, pp. 89–96.
  32. ↑ Doyle 1990, p. 93.
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