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Apartheid

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Apartheid, South Africa ke political system rahaa jiske niche huan ke log ke racial group me divide karaa gais rahaa. Ii policy officially 1948 se 1994 talak rahaa, lekin ii jagha pe racial discrimination aur pahile suruu bhais rahaa. Ii system se non-white log ke uu logan ke adhikar le lewa gais rahaa. Kanuun goraa minority ke karia majority ke kuch jagha pe khaali rahe ke adhikar diis. Katia logan ke sab time pass carry kare ke parrat rahaa. Sarkar mila jhula jagha se logan ke force kar ke hatais. rahaa.

Pahile ke apartheid

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Apartheid ek Afrikaans[1] sabd hae jiske matlab "separateness", nai to "the state of being apart", literally "apart-ness" nai to apart-hood" (jon Afrikaans suffix -heid se aais hae).[2][3] Iske pahila dafe 1929 me kaam me laawa gais rahaa.[4]

Jaati pe bhed-bhao Black log ke virod me, South Africa me, barraa-scale pe European colonisation South Africa ke, jab Dutch East India Company ek trading post ke Cape of Good Hope me, 1652 me banais rahaa, jon baad me barr ke Dutch Cape Colony hoe gais rahaa, se suruu bhais rahaa. Ii company Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars ke suruu karis rahaa jisme uulog locak local Khoikhoi people ke hatae ke, khet banae rahin jiske White settlers own karat rahin, aur jisme imported Black slaves Dutch Empire se, kaam karat rahin.[5] Gulami ke jamaana me gulaam log ke aapan lage ek pass rakkhe ke parrat rahaa jab aapan malik se duur rhat rahin.

1797 me, Landdrost aur Heemraden, jon local officials rahin, Swellendam aur Graaff-Reinet ke, pass laws ke gulaam se aur log talak failae rahin aur decree karin ki sab Khoikhoi log (jiske Hottentots bola gais rahaa) jon des bhar me ghume hae, koi kaaran se, ke ek pass sanghe rakkhe ke parri. [6] Iske British Colonial government 1809 me samarthan karis rahaa, Hottentot Proclamation se, jon batais ki, agar ek Khoikhoi kahin jaae mange tag uske legae ek pass uske malik nai to local official se rahe ke chaahi.[6] Ordinance No. 49 of 1828 ii decree karis ki koi Black admi jon duusra des e South Africa aawe maange hae, ke pass dewa jaai, kaam ke khoje ke khaatir. [6] Ii pass Coloureds aur Khoikhoi khaatir rahaa, duusra Africans khaatir nai rahaa, jinke fir bhi pass rakkhe ke parrat rahaa.

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars ke time, British Empire Dutch Cape Colony ke aapan niche kar liis rahaa.[7] 1806 Cape Articles of Capitulation ke niche, nawaa British colonial rulers ke pahile ke legislation jiske Roman-Dutch law ke niche banaawa gais rahaa, ke respect kare ke rahaa,[8] aur iske kaaran South Africa ke kanun English Common Law se different rahaa aur colony ke dher legislative autonomy dewa gais rahaa. Governor log aur assemblies jon South Africa ke colonies ke govern karat rahin ek ajaad maarg follow karat rahin aur sab British Empire ke mukaable me.

United Kingdom ke Slavery Abolition Act 1833 ke pass hoe ke baad British Empire me gulami ke dhire dhire khalaas hoe ke rahaa. 1837 talak British Empire me gulam ke kharidna aur becha pe manahi rahaa, aur Nigeria aur Bahrain aakhri British territories rahaa jon gulam i ke khalaas karis rahaa.[9][10][11][12] Ii act Cape Articles of Capitulation ke override karis rahaa. Ii act se comply kare ke khaatir, South African legislation ke barrhae ke Ordinance 1 in 1835 ke include karaa gais rahaa, jon gulam logan ke status ke badal ke indentured labourers banais rahaa. Iske baad Ordinance 3 in 1848, indenture system ke Xhosa ke khaaatir laabu karaa gais rahaa jon gulami se bahut antar nai rahaa.

South Africa ke dher colonies legislation pass kare rahin 19th century bhar jisse unskilled majuur ke adhikaar ke kamti karaa jaawat rahaa, indentured majuur pe rukaawat aur jaada karaa jaawat rahaa aur jati ke biich ke relationship ke regulate karaa jaawat rahaa. Jab South Africa me hira aur sona paawa gais tab racial inequality White aur Black log ke biich me aur jaada hoe gais rahaa.[13] Kuchh gyaani log ii bahar karin hae ki Apartheid ke ideology ke Afrikaner Calvinism me paawa jaae sake hae, jiske saathe racialism bhi rahaa;[14] jaise, 1933 me; Broederbond ke executive council mass segregation ke recommend karis rahaa.[14]

Cape Colony jiske pahile liberal aur multi-racial constitution aur ek Cape Qualified Franchise rahaa jon sab jaat ke log ke khaatir khula rahaa, 1892 ke Franchise and Ballot Act property franchise qualification ke aur uppar kar diis aur ek educational element ke jorr diis rahaa, jisse dher Cape ke non-White voters aapan vote le lose kar de rahin,[15] aur 1894 ke Glen Grey Act jiske sarkar instigate karis rahaa jiske Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes neta rahaa, Africans log ketna jamiin rakkhe sakat rahin ke aur kamti kar dewa gais rahaa. Yahii raka, Natal me, 1894 ke Natal Legislative Assembly Bill Hindustano log ke vote kare ke adhikaar ke hatae diis rahaa.[16] 1896 me South African Republic dui pass laws ke pass karis jisme Africans ke ek badge carry kare ke rahaa. Khaali wahii log jon ek malik ke kaam karat rahin Rand me rahe sakat rahin, aur jon "labour district" me aawat rahaa ke ek special pass ke jaruri rahaa.[17] Second Boer War ke time, British Empire cited racial exploitation of Blacks as a cause for its war against the Boer republics. However, the peace negotiations for the Treaty of Vereeniging demanded "the just predominance of the white race" in South Africa as a precondition for the Boer republics unifying with the British Empire.[18]

1905 me General Pass Regulations Act Black log ke vote kare ke adhikaar ke khatam kar de rahin aur uu logan ke fixed jagha me rahe ke parrrat rahaa,[19] aur 1906 me Transvaal Colony ke Asiatic Registration Act ke niche sab Hindustani log ke register hoe ke pass carry kare ke parraa rahaa.[20] 1906 me suruu hoe ke, South African Native Affairs Commission, Godfrey Lagden ke niche, non-Whites ke virodh me ek aur jaada openly segregationist policy suruu karis rahaa.[21] Iske British sarkar repeal kar diis rahaa, lekin 1908 me iske fir se labu karaa gais rahaa. 1910 me, Union of South Africa ke banaawa gais rahaa, ek self-governing dominion ke ruup me, jon ii legislative program ke aage barrhate rahaa: South Africa Act (1910) ke niche sab White log ke vote kare ke adhikaar milaa rahaa, jiske kaaran uulog duusra jaat pe puura political control kar le rahin jab Black log ke parliament me baithe ke adhikaar ke hatae dewa gais rahaa;[22] Native Land Act (1913) ke niche Black log, Cape ke chhorr ke, "reserves" se bahaar jamiin kharide ke manahi rahaa;[22] Natives in Urban Areas Bill (1918) ke idea rahaa ki Black log ke "locations" me karaa jaae;[23] Urban Areas Act (1923) residential segregation ke suruu karis aur industry, jiske White log own karat rahin, ke sasta labour diis rahaa; Colour Bar Act (1926) Black mine workers ke skilled trades practice kare se rokis rahaa; Native Administration Act (1927) British Crown ke, paramount chief ke jagha, sab African affairs ke supreme aguwaa banais rahaa;[24][25] Native Land and Trust Act (1936), 1913 Native Land Act ke complement karis rahaa aur, wahii saal me, Representation of Natives Act Black voters ke Cape voters' roll se hatae diis rahaa aur uu logan ke tiin Whites ke Parliament me chune ke adhikaar diis rahaa.[26]

References

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  1. ↑ "Dictionary.com entry for 'apartheid'". Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
  2. ↑ Shore, Megan. Religion and Conflict Resolution: Christianity and South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Ashgate Publishing, 2009. p. 36
  3. ↑ Clark, Nancy; Worger, William (2013). "The Basis of Apartheid" (in en). South Africa: The Rise and Fall of Apartheid. New York: Routledge.
  4. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Routledge".
  5. ↑ Clark & Worger 2016, pp. 11–12.
  6. 1 2 3 Du Toit & Giliomee 1983.
  7. ↑ Clark & Worger 2016, p. 12.
  8. ↑ R.W Lee. "Introduction to Roman-Dutch Law". Oxford, Clarendon Press. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
  9. ↑ Nwaubani, Adaobi Tricia (2018-07-15). "My Great-Grandfather, the Nigerian Slave-Trader". The New Yorker (in English). ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 2025-02-03.
  10. ↑ (in en) The abolition of the slave trade in southeastern Nigeria, 1885-1950 | WorldCat.org. OCLC 256735611.
  11. ↑ Northrup, David (September 2007). "A. E. Afigbo. The Abolition of the Slave Trade in Southeastern Nigeria. 1885-1950. Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2006. Rochester Studies in African History and the Diaspora. xv + 210 pp. Maps. Appendixes. Bibliography. Index. $75.00. Cloth." (in en). African Studies Review 50 (2): 228–229. doi:10.1353/arw.2007.0116. ISSN 0002-0206. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/a-e-afigbo-the-abolition-of-the-slave-trade-in-southeastern-nigeria-18851950-rochester-university-of-rochester-press-2006-rochester-studies-in-african-history-and-the-diaspora-xv-210-pp-maps-appendixes-bibliography-index-7500-cloth/7279CB1095BDD89AD84EACAA5AAA42CC.
  12. ↑ Miers, Suzanne (2003) (in en). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Rowman Altamira. pp. 265–67. ISBN 978-0-7591-0340-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=zZk9Y-HTQzcC&q=1926+Slavery+Convention.
  13. ↑ Clark & Worger 2016, p. 14.
  14. 1 2 Dubow, Saul, "Afrikaner Nationalism, Apartheid and the conceptualisation of 'RaceTemplate:'", The Journal of African History, 33 (1992) pp. 209–237 (pp. 209, 211)
  15. ↑ Gish, Steven (2000). Alfred B. Xuma: African, American, South African. New York University Press. p. 8.
  16. ↑ Hoiberg, Dale; Ramchandani, Indu (2000). Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1–5. Popular Prakashan. p. 142.
  17. ↑ Kiloh, Margaret; Sibeko, Archie (2000). A Fighting Union. Randburg: Ravan Press. p. 1. ISBN 0869755277.
  18. ↑ Clark & Worger 2016, pp. 16–17.
  19. ↑ Allen, John (2005). Apartheid South Africa: an insider's view of the origin and effects of separate development. New York: iUniverse, Inc. p. 267. ISBN 978-059 5355518.
  20. ↑ {better source needed} Nojeim, Michael J. (2004). Gandhi and King: the power of nonviolent resistance. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 127.
  21. ↑ Clark & Worger 2016, p. 17.
  22. 1 2 Leach, Graham (1986). South Africa: no easy path to peace. Routledge. p. 68.
  23. ↑ Tankard, Keith (9 May 2004). Chapter 9 The Natives (Urban Areas) Act Archived 20 Navambar 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Rhodes University. knowledge4africa.com.
  24. ↑ Baroness Young – Minister of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Office (4 July 1986). South Africa House of Lords Debate vol 477 cc 1159–250 Archived 26 Maach 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Hansard.
  25. ↑ Khunou, Freddie (2009). "Traditional Leadership and Independent Bantustans of South Africa; Some Milestones of Transformative Constitutionalism Beyond Apartheid". PER 12 (4). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317904053_Traditional_Leadership_and_Independent_Bantustans_of_South_Africa_Some_Milestones_of_Transformative_Constitutionalism_beyond_Apartheid.
  26. ↑ The Representation of Natives Act. sahistory.org Archived 13 Actobar 2006 at the Wayback Machine
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