Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration, Japan ke itihaas ke ek sabd hae. Japanese bhasa me , Meiji-ishin sabd Meiji Restoration ke khatir kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa. Isse Japan me 1868 me Emperor Meiji ke raaj suruu bhais rahaa.
Ii restoration ke baad Japan me dher pariwartan aais. Japan industrialise hoe gais aur western ideas ke Japan me laawa gais.
1854 me America "gunboat diplomacy" ke kaam me laae Japan ke [orts ke overseas trade ke khaatir kholwais rahaa. Jon treaty ke Japan ke foreign powers se sign kare ke parraa rahaa ke Japan me "Unequal Treaties" bola jaat rahaa.
Background
[badlo | source ke badlo]Rajnaiyik aur samajik banaawat
[badlo | source ke badlo]Edo period me, Japan pe raaj karaa jaawat rahaa ek strict aur rigid samajik order jiske position janam adhikaar se aawat rahaa. Ii hierarchy, descending order me rahaa Emperor aur uske Court sab se uppar rahin. Shōgun, rōjū aur daimyō ke saathe, uske niche samaj ke sab se uppar rahin. Uulog ke niche rahin samurai ke subdivisions, kisan, artisans, aur merchants.[1] Historian Marius B. Jansen, ii system ke political organisation ke "feudal autonomy" batais hae.[2] Ii sarkar ke structure rahaa rahaa, jahan shōgun jada control dher daimyō ke, aapan domains , jisse uulog me control kare sake aapan jurisdiction jab uulog shogun ke homage pay kare hae irregular taxation se, saadi aur idhar-udhar jaae ke khaatir anumati,[3] aur systems jaise alternate attendance.[4] Samurai palwaar ke puura abaadi, 19th century me 30 million people (1,500,000–1,800,000) log me se 5-6% rahaa, ii palwaar me, lagbhag 50 me se 1 "upper samurai" rahaa, jab baaki ke lagbhag baraabar ke hissa me "middle" aur "lower" samurai me baata jaawe hae, aur har ek division me dher subdivisions rahaa.[5]
Jon influence Tokugawa shogunate (bakufu) exert kare hae, abhi ke Japan me, jamiin ke distribution aur management pe banaa rahaa. Iske domains me baata gais rahaa, jisme har ek domain ke koku, nai to ketna chaur ek given area of land har saal produce kare sake hae, se naapa jaawat rahaa. 1650 talak, shōgun sidhe jamiin ke control karat rahaa, jisme lagbhag 4.2 million koku chaur rahaa, aapan direct retainers, Tokugawa palwaar (shinpan daimyō) ke aur members, aur uske niche ke log (fudai daimyō) jon ek combined total of land producing 12.9 million koku out of a national 26 million koku ke control karat rahin. Baaki 9.8 million koku (38% se thorraa kamti) ke 100 virodhi tozama daimyō me baata gais rahaa. Ii log, uulog ke descendants rahin jon Tokugawa ke virodh me larre rahin, Battle of Sekigahara me. Dher sab se tagrraa tozama domains western Japan me rahin, central poer se duur, jisme fudai jaada kar ke government offices ke control karat rahin, lekin chhotaa-chhotaa provinces jisse uulog ke system retain kare ke protsaan mile.[6]
Neo-Confucian tenets of bakufu authority ke anusaar, ii system of hierarchy develop bhais rahaa bushidō me, jiske ek series of descending subordinations encourage karat rahin,[7] lekin China ke rakam nai, iske bakufu se adopt karnaa came to inform an ethic jon structural organisation of the Tokugawa state se different rahaa; iske kaaran ii Western scientific methods ke saathe rahe sakaa. Historian William G. Beasley ii bahas kare hae ki tension ii official state ideology jon encourage karat rahaa enlightened meritocratic rule aur rigid class structure jon lower aur middle ranking samurai bureaucrats ke advancing their position se rokat rahaa, ki biich me tension rahaa.[8] Jab ii foreign aur domestic crises ke kaaran aur barrhaa, and in spite ofaur official attempts to begin promoting Template:Translit to offices beyond their inherited position ke baawajuut,[9] ii systems ke biich ke samajik bonds weakened kamjor hoe gais, jiske kaaran reformist aur revolutionary attitudes samurai ke biich me aur barrhaa.{{sfn|Bek developing mass culture aur communication me, ke aapan influence ke political powewr me badlna pe manahi rahaa. [10]
Ideological currents
[badlo | source ke badlo]18th century ke aakhri quarter se suruu hoe ke, ek rakam ke Shintō revival howat rahaa growing interest in Dutch studies ke saathe. Duuno rakam ke bichaar bhais rahaa China se muh ghumae ke, as centre of intellectual thought. Lekin duuno movements careful rahin, ki established political order ke disturb nai kare.[11] Mito School ke kaam, khaas kar ke Kōdōkan ke saathe, khaas kar ke important rahaa nativist concepts ke jon kokugaku (national learning) se connected rahaa.[12]
Lekin kuchh rukaawat rahaa. Jab Hirata Atsutane bahut jaada ar diis bakufu ke khaatir political claims the Emperor ke revive kare ke khaatir,uske chup karwae dewa gais rahaa.[13] Fir bhi, the development of national learning Mito School me chalte rahaa, |fukoku kyōhei (rich nation, strong army) sabd ke kaam me laae ke, domestic aur foreign threats ke descibe kar ke jiske scholar Fujita Yūkoku apply karis rahaa.[12] Fujita ke larrka's son, Fujita Tōko, jon likhis rahaa First Opium War ke baad, ii insist karat rahaa ki desirable position Japan khaatir ii rahaa jon jōi (repelling the barbarian) jiske baad kaikoku rahaa, des ke khole ke , baraabr se.[14] Jab immediate danger the foreign threat possessed bhais, kokugaku scholars ke kaam ke kaaran evaluation ki konchi national hae, which jon Emperor aur Shintō pe focus laais rahaa.[15]
Sakuma Shōzan ek midranking samurai daimyō Sanada Yukinori of Matsushiro Domain ke niche, jiske ek conservative attitude to the social development of Japanese society rahaa, lekin practical rahaa aapan approach to the adoption of Western technology ke khaatir. Uu aapan view of Neo-Confucian ethics ke adoption of foreign scientific methods ke saathe saamil karis,[16] jime phrase "Eastern ethics, Western science" ke coin bhais rahaa.[lower-alpha 1][17] Coastal defence ke jaruri ke baare me likhe ke alaawa, uu cannon founding ke suruu karis, aapan camera ke apne banais, aur ek Japanese-English dictionary ke likhis rahaa, jon designed rahaa ki defense of Japan ke contribute kare.[16] Uu Edo me ek school ke kholis rahaa, jisme uu 5,000 se jaada students ke des bhar se parrhat rahaa. [18] Uske kosis ki uu men of talent (who would be drawn exclusively from the samurai class) ke promote kare, aur Japanese military ke reorganis ekarna dhr influential rahaa uske chela log me, jisme Katsu Kaishū aur Yoshida Shōin bhi rahaa. Lakin, ii foundation for proposals rahaa jon social order ke badli, jiske uu preserve kare maangat rahaa.[16]
Economic development
[badlo | source ke badlo]Tenpō Reforms (1841–1843) government policy designed to reform issues in political and economic organisation ke khaas readjustment rahaa, iske natija ek deep divide rahaa, shogunate aur daimyō ke biich me. 1830s aur 1840s me famine aur popular des bhar me rahaa (e.g. the Osaka revolt),[19] jiske matlab ii rahaa kei ii issues aur their symptoms ke resolve kar eme had mixed effects rahaa.[20] Senior Rōjū Mizuno Tadakuni ke suruu ke kosis me introducing sumptuary laws rahaa, jisse austerity ke promote karaa jaae aur consumption ke kamti karaa jaae.[21] Samurai retainers ke mile waala paisa ke kamti, nai to khalaa kare ke kaaran, uulog aapan lords ke ab serve kare nai maangat rahin , nai to puura social class ke, jiske kaaran kuchh personal liberty aur mercantile freedom ke choose kare rahin , jisse uulog ke uu chij mila jiske uuog maangat rahin as members of the samurai class. Daimyō debt owed to their own merchants ke cancel kar de rahin aur renegotiate kare rahin favourable terms for debt owed to merchants under bakufu jurisdiction—due to resulting higher interest rates imposed on the daimyō to borrow more money, across Japan efforts were made to increase domain income.[lower-alpha 2][20]
Pakka chaur ke payment samurai ke vulnerable kar diis rahaa, market ke utaar-charrhao se, kabhi-kabhi coinage debasement, aur kaaheki ii paisa ke nawaa new monetary system me transferkare ke rahaa. Jaise, merchants jon agents rahin aapan stipends ke beche ke, khaas kar ke profit made on these sales ke aapan jeb me rakkhat rahin. Iske biich me, development of urban life ke ek hissa ke ruup me, artisans aur kisan production of goods aur crops ke diversify kar de rahin jon, jaada demand ke kaaran, dher dafe samurai ke resources ke drain kar de rahin, jab duusra fasal me aur faaeda hoe lagaa, chaur ke mukable me. Dher samurai, jaada kar ke karjaa me rahat rahin, jisme daimyō ek system of enforced expenditure me rahat rahin, jisse bakufu (among other things) alternate exchange system and public works projects ke kare sake[23]
References
[badlo | source ke badlo]- ↑ Beasley 1972, p. 22.
- ↑ Jansen 1994, p. 3.
- ↑ Jansen 1994, p. 6.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, pp. 17–22.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, pp. 24, 27.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, pp. 15–17.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, pp. 34–35.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, p. 38.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, pp. 61–63.
- ↑ Swale 2009, p. 21.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, p. 79.
- 1 2 Beasley 1972, pp. 82–83.
- ↑ Jansen 1994, p. 52.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, pp. 84–85.
- ↑ Jansen 1994, p. 53.
- 1 2 3 Beasley 1972, pp. 80–82.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, p. 86.
- ↑ Jansen 2000, p. 288.
- ↑ Jansen 2000, p. 247-248.
- 1 2 Jansen 2000, p. 251.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, pp. 64–65.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, pp. 65–66.
- ↑ Beasley 1972, pp. 44–46.
- ↑ tōyō dōtoku, seiyō gakugei, 東洋道徳西洋学芸
- ↑ Beasley writes that the financial failure of his reforms led to Mizuno's dismissal in 1843, with the reforms of Tosa domain suffering a "similar fate", whereas Hizen, under Nabeshima Naomasa supplemented a policy of retrenchment with an "attack on landlordism" that was effective "in the short run", while Choshu domain found itself with spiralling debt.[22]
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